Research Design

The present research is an empirical investigation of women bus conductors working in Chandigarh (UT). The study employs a quantitative research approach aiming to comprehensively understand the challenges women bus conductors face in achieving a work-life balance, the effects of organisational policies and the coping mechanisms they adopt.

Study Area and Sampling

The present study area is Chandigarh, which is a Union Territory of India and the Capital of the two states of Punjab and Haryana. It is a planned city in India. From 1966, only male conductors were working in bus conductor positions, but from 2014 onwards, women bus conductors were also recruited and started working. So, the present study is limited to women bus conductors working in Chandigarh (UT). The selection of respondents was made due to their underrepresentation in academic research and its significance to understanding gender dynamics in male-dominated occupations. A total of 120 women conductors were recruited, but during the present study, 108 respondents were working as women bus conductors.

Sampling Technique and Data Collection Methods and Analysis

To cover all 108 respondents, the researcher adopted the census method to include every woman bus conductor. The respondents belonged to different categories, that is, permanent, probationary and outsourced employees. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire, and it consisted of multidimensional sections on work-life balance challenges, occupational gender discrimination, coping strategies and organisational support. The data for the study were collected over 18 months (October 2021 to March 2023), through direct interaction and intensive observation. The data were analysed through descriptive statistical methods, which consist of frequency distribution, percentage and mean score calculation. By using mean scores, analysis of the data can be used to compare variables and identify which challenges and support mechanisms were the most significant.

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

The demographic characteristics of respondents are an important aspect of this study because they provide a contextual picture of how the socio-economic and personal characteristics contributed to their work experiences. In this study, some of the relevant demographic variables of women bus conductors were included, such as age, marital status, level of education and how long they have worked.

Table 1 represents the demographic profile of the respondents. The age distribution shows that more than half of the respondents (53.7%) were in the age group between 24 and 29 years. This age group is often associated with career-building, advanced education or transitioning into significant professional roles. Whereas 35.2% of the respondents were in the more than 30 years age group. In addition, only 11.1% of respondents were in the 18-23 age group, who might be seen as in the identity versus role confusion stage, possibly still completing education or beginning to define their professional identities. The data show that a significant proportion of respondents (45.4%) hold a graduate degree, while over a third (34.3%) were post-graduate and above qualified. Meanwhile, only 13% of the respondents had completed their 12th/diploma degree, which was the essential educational criterion for this job involvement.

According to their marital status, 63.9% of the respondents were single or unmarried. At the same time, one-third (33.3%) of the respondents were married. A small proportion of the respondents were separated (0.9%) and widowed (1.9%). Data also indicate that 62.1% of respondents joined between 3 and 6 years ago, and 33.3% of the respondents had joined more than 6 years ago, and a small proportion of respondents, 4.6% had joined within the last 3 years, which may advocate the entry-level nature of the job market for many respondents, aligning with earlier observations on age.

Therefore, the data signifies that a significant proportion of respondents were in the age group between 24 and 29 years, and a substantial proportion of respondents had graduated and post-graduate educational qualifications, which highlights that respondents were more qualified than the minimum educational qualification criteria (12th standard). In addition, a large portion of respondents were unmarried, and many of them had more than 2 years of work experience.

Table 2 provides a structured understanding of respondents’ perception regarding key dimensions of work-life balance. By applying a Likert scale, the responses reveal both the degree of intensity and agreeable distribution across four main challenges. The mean score also sheds light on the relative importance of each issue, which influences the respondents’ experiences.

Difficulty in Balancing Work and Family

Findings indicate that a significant proportion of respondents (41.7% strongly agreed and 32.4% agreed) experienced significant difficulties in balancing work and family responsibilities. While 16.7% of the respondents expressed disagreement, and 9.3% of respondents remained neutral. The mean score of 2.06 indicates strong agreement towards facing difficulty in balancing work and family. Therefore, these findings reflect a persistent role conflict and work imbalance between professional and domestic spheres. The overlap of multiple responsibilities to work and to their families indicates that respondents were negotiating competing expectations, often without adequate institutional support. These findings align with the theories of Work-Family Border theory, role conflict and work-family conflicts, in which time and strain pressure from work and responsibilities impact balancing household and professional work (Clark, 2000; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Hochschild & Machung, 2012).

Impact of Irregular Work Shifts on Family Time

A combined 78.7% of the respondents (27.8% strongly agree and 50.9% agree) acknowledged that irregular work shifts adversely interfere with family time. Only 13.9% of the respondents disagreed with the statement, while 7.4% were neutral, with a mean score of 2.12, which reflects strong agreement towards the impact of irregular work shifts. Thus, it shows high levels of concern about irregular working hours. The results of this difficulty align with research on work-life imbalance, which emphasises how irregular work schedules can interfere with family routines and reduce time spent with dependents or family members.

Lack of Flexible Working Hours

In contrast to the other statement, the perception of inadequate flexible working hours shows a more dispersed response pattern. Out of the total respondents, 48.1% indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed with flexible working hours, yet 41.7% of the respondents had neutral opinions. Only 10.2% of respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed with the statement. The mean score of 2.54 indicates a moderately high level of agreement relative to the other variables. Therefore, this high level of neutrality indicates that respondents have different levels of access to or awareness of flexible work options. These findings also reflect occupational heterogeneity, where flexibility is unevenly distributed across various job roles, sectors or hierarchical levels. Corresponding to other studies, having more flexibility in one’s working hours is essential for lowering work-life conflict (Kossek et al., 2011), which advocates that respondents could gain from more flexibility or more transparent communication.

Lack of Family Support in Managing Work–Life Balance

The perception of inadequate family support shows a moderately distributed response. A combined 53.7% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they experience a lack of family support, while 29.9% respondents gave moderate or neutral responses. Additionally, 16.7% of the respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed with the statement. The mean value of 2.47 indicates a moderate inclination towards agreement. Thus, this signifies that family support is a relevant factor, and it is not universally perceived as deficient. A lack of family support can worsen stress and role conflict, whereas family support is essential in lowering work-life conflict.

Overall, the analysis reveals that the predominantly challenged barriers to achieving work-life balance were scheduling family time and adjusting to irregular work schedules, while flexibility and family support play secondary but still relevant parts.

Table 3 represents the data on respondents’ opinions about gender-based discrimination in the workplace. It addresses the alleged discrimination in various key areas: unfair treatment by management, task distribution, wage disparity and promotion opportunities. The overall distribution of responses with their associated mean scores reveals a complex and stratified distribution of perceived inequalities, suggesting that respondents observe gender discrimination through indirect processes, rather than through actual, overt discriminatory practices.

Perceived Inequality in Promotion Opportunities

A majority of the respondents (80.6%) strongly agreed and agreed (38.9% and 41.7%) with the statement that they were less likely to be promoted than their male counterparts. Meanwhile, only 8.4% of the respondents expressed disagreement, and 11.1% remained neutral. The average score of 1.91 indicates agreement towards the discriminatory practices in promotion. As a result, it implies that discrimination in job promotions is a common problem that stems from gender bias. This data represents that respondents perceive a glass ceiling effect in their professional growth despite formal commitments to equality, which aligns with the existing literature on gender differences in hierarchical promotions.

Assigned Fewer Challenging Tasks

Out of the total respondents, 81.5% of the respondents (46.3% strongly agreed and 35.2% agreed) felt that they were given fewer challenging work tasks, while 9.3% of the respondents disagreed with this statement, and an equivalent proportion were neutral. The data indicated a mean response of 1.84 (which is also the lowest average of all measured variables), thereby indicating the greatest amount of agreement. Thus, the issue signifies the noticeable trend in the allocation of challenging work assignments, and it represents an example of horizontal segregation in occupational categories. It also highlights how variation in the kind of tasks people do leads to unequal opportunities to gain skills, be seen as capable and advance in their careers. This discrimination can be explained by the role congruity theory, which holds that women are stereotyped as being less able to manage difficult or high-stakes activities, particularly in physically demanding occupations (Eagly & Karau, 2003), as well as the JD-R model also exemplifies the unsupportive organisational services to provide equal resources and opportunities (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).

Perceived Unfair Treatment by Management

Compared to the other dimensions, perception of unfair treatment by management was more evenly distributed. Only 25% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed, whereas a substantial proportion of responses (45.4%) disagreed and strongly disagreed, and a considerable proportion of responses (39.8%) were neutral or uncertain regarding unjust treatment by the management. The 3.12 moderate mean score implies a tendency towards neutrality or slight disagreement. Therefore, it reflects that the high level of neutrality indicates ambiguity in interpreting managerial behaviour or variability in individual experiences across departments or organisational contexts.

Pay Inequality Compared to Male Colleagues

In contrast with the other types of discrimination, a substantial proportion (64.8%) of respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed with the statement that wage inequality exists, compared to just 12.9% of respondents who agreed, and 22.2% remained neutral. The mean score of 3.67, the highest among all the variables, indicates a disagreement with the statement. Thus, these findings reflect that pay fairness is not as much of an issue in this particular workplace or organisation.

Overall findings indicate that perceived gender discrimination is particularly noticeable in areas of job distribution, particularly related to promotions and task allocation, which can have a substantial effect on retention and work satisfaction.

Table 4 highlights the occupational stressors faced by respondents in the workplace, with a focus on both physical and psychological aspects of job-related stress. The above analysis highlights the major stress factors such as long working hours, physical demands of the job, commuter harassment, conflicts with coworkers, lack of rest and insufficient management support.

Long Working Hours

Data signify that a significant proportion of respondents experienced stress due to long working hours, with 69.4% indicating sometimes, and 18.5% of the respondents reported always. Meanwhile, 12% of the respondents reported never. The mean score of 1.93 reflects a moderate but consistent source of stress. Thus, this spectrum shows that working long hours is an ongoing but normalised working condition that produces a periodic strain rather than continual strain. Whereas the predominance of sometimes responses indicates that long hours are not regularly overwhelming, they continue to be a consistent source of stress in the workplace. Therefore, these findings highlight that women conductors are particularly affected by this issue as they frequently balance job and family obligations, which exacerbates their work-life conflicts.

Physical Demand of the Job

It was found that the majority of the respondents (88%) believed that physical demand is a source of stress, with 38.0% reporting that they were always experiencing stress. Meanwhile, 50% of the respondents mentioned it only sometimes, while 12% of the respondents reported never. The average score of 1.74 indicates a high level of stress. Therefore, the results suggest that most of the respondents faced physically demanding job stress, and the possible cause for the observed physical strain is the nature of the work, which includes standing for extended periods, handling equipment, alertness and assisting commuters. These findings align with Karasek’s (1979) demand-control model, which argues that occupations that require a lot of physical exertion but give less control over working circumstances are more stressful. These expectations might increase stress on women conductors, who may already be expected by society to perform caregiving duties (Kain & Jex, 2010).

Harassment from Commuters

Data show that nearly half of the respondents (46.3%) had always experienced stress due to harassment by commuters, while the remaining 53.7% sometimes experienced this type of stress. Thus, the data reflect that all respondents were facing this form of external stress, which has both physical and psychological effects. The low mean score of 1.53 also emphasised a very high level of stress. Therefore, among all stressors, harassment by the commuters was found to be one of the most significant sources of stress experienced during travel by the respondents. The absence of a ‘never’ response indicates that harassment during the commute is a likely and anticipated experience for all respondents. Furthermore, it illustrates how one’s external social environment and commuters’ pretentious behaviour impact the respondent’s mental experiences.

Conflicts with Male Colleagues

Data signify that approximately one-third (35.2%) of the respondents always felt stress due to conflicts with male colleagues, while close to half (48.1%) of the respondents sometimes encounter conflicts as well. In addition, only 16.7% of the respondents never experienced stress due to such conflicts. The mean score of 1.81 reflects the respondents’ experienced moderate level of stress. Thus, these findings support the idea of patriarchal theory, which holds that workplace tensions, disputes and discriminatory practices that negatively impact women or other gendered minorities are caused by male-centred structures of power. In line with these, the evident data support the existence of inequality and stereotypes based on gender among women conductors, which further leads to exclusive or hostile work environments for the women working in these areas that are generally dominated by men.

Inadequate Support from Management

Another major finding of the study was that over half the respondents (50.9%) reported that they always experienced stress, while 47.2% experienced stress sometimes. In contrast, only 1.9% of the respondents reported that they have never felt stressed due to a lack of support from management. The average score of 1.50 signifies the highest level of stress compared to all other stressors. As a result, the lack of management support is one of the most significant stressors and demonstrates management’s unsupportive and unresponsive attitudes towards the women conductors. This study supports the strong hierarchical nature of power dynamics in this organisation, as well as demonstrates that the organisation does not demonstrate a level of commitment to its employees.

Lack of Rest During Shifts

More than two-fifths (43.5%) of the respondents experienced stress due to lack of rest during work shifts, while 44.4% of the respondents mentioned that they experience it sometimes, and 12% of respondents never experienced stress due to insufficient rest. The mean score of 1.68 reflects an average to moderately high level of stress. Thus, the findings indicate that respondents experience intense pressure to sustain high levels of output with very little time to recover from their shifts, which leads to physical and psychological stress.

Overall, the analysis depicts that occupational stress among respondents was assessed through various dimensions, including structurally embedded lack of support from the organisation, high physical workloads and poor social interactions. The results clearly indicate the inadequacy of organisational managerial support and the amount of harassment experienced by many respondents and reflect a direct need for all organisations to make the necessary changes to their internal company policies and procedures, as well as to create a pleasant workplace for their employees.

Table 5 represents the coping mechanisms employed by the respondents to navigate the occupational challenges and work demands.

Seeking Support from Family

It was found that the majority of respondents (74.1%) had adopted a strategy of seeking support from their family members. This strategy indicates that families were a key source or central unit for dealing with work-related stress. With the relevance of many theories, these findings indicate a patriarchal structure of society where women are frequently expected to provide care, fulfil family obligations and perform all the necessary work associated with them. This expected behaviour for women may provide them with an essential tool for easing the strain of stresses like lengthy work days and demanding physical jobs.

Discussion on the Issues with the Colleagues

It was found that nearly half of the respondents, 46.3% revealed that they were coping by discussing work-related issues with their colleagues, especially with their female colleagues. Thus, this finding indicates that peer relationships play a crucial role in stress management, which not only helps emotional release but also contributes to collective sense-making, where shared experience normalises stress and a sense of solidarity. Corresponding to the findings, the results align with the social exchange theory (Blau, 1978), whereby they explained how such interaction encourages a reciprocal exchange of practical and emotional assistance, which helps employees to overcome obstacles in their workplace.

Using Workplace Counselling Services

The data on counselling services indicate that only 18.5% of the respondents utilised workplace counselling services. Thus, the results show that a low number of respondents were accessing counselling services, which points to a lack of availability or an unwillingness to do so. This could be a result of several things, such as the stigma attached to getting mental health assistance, ignorance of these resources or even scepticism about the efficacy of workplace counselling. Some of the respondents also mentioned that there is no counsellor and not even any female officers to whom they can convey their issues without any hesitation. This fact also reflects the organisational culture itself, where employees may feel deterred from seeking counselling services. Thus, this shows that there is a major lack of organisational support for workers’ well-being.

Taking Time Off Work

Data signifies that 27.8% of the respondents were taking time off from work when it was necessary. Thus, it indicates that taking time off work is one of the other essential coping mechanisms that directly address work-life balance concerns. This shows respondents can rejuvenate both physically and emotionally by taking a break from work. However, a very small proportion of respondents who employ such a strategy would suggest that they have difficulty in taking time off, perhaps as a result of financial limitations, workplace pressure to keep working or fear of job instability. According to work-life conflict theory, employees experience higher levels of stress when they are unable to successfully divide their personal and professional lives.

Engaging in Relaxation Activities After Work

Relaxation activities after work have been another common coping mechanism among the respondents; 55.6% of the respondents reported using these types of activities to manage their stress, such as exercise, meditation, doing hobbies (dancing, singing, cooking, etc.) and socialising with others. Thus, engaging in these activities by the respondents reflects an enhancement of emotional and physical wellness to deal with their job demands. Similarly, this is consistent with cognitive behavioural theory, which places considerable emphasis on individual coping strategies for managing stress.

Therefore, the study illustrates the existence of a wide variety of coping mechanisms used by respondents to manage their stress. However, the findings further demonstrate a reliance on social support systems, including family, friends and colleagues. The study also indicates that even though relaxation techniques were the most frequently chosen method to cope with stress, workplace counselling or professional support networks were still underutilised. In addition, while taking time off from work is a vital component of maintaining a healthy work-life balance, the low level of usage of this strategy indicates that there may be organisational or financial barriers that need to be addressed. By focusing on these barriers, organisations can assist women conductors with developing better coping strategies, which will ultimately improve their overall health and satisfaction at work.

Table 6 provides insight into the levels of satisfaction among women bus conductors with the organisational policies in place to support their well-being and work-life balance. These policies include flexible work hours, anti-harassment measures, training opportunities, medical facilities and leave provisions.

Flexible Work Hours

The above data reveals that only 13.9% of respondents stated they were very satisfied, and 18.5% stated they were satisfied with the flexible working hours. On the other hand, 15.7% were dissatisfied or strongly dissatisfied (9.3%) with the statement. Subsequently, a significant percentage of respondents (42.6%) expressed a neutral response towards flexible working hours. With a 2.87 average score, the results indicate a low level of satisfaction with flexible work hours. However, flexible work schedules are critical to helping respondents maintain their work-life balance both personally and professionally. As Table 2 demonstrates, the lack of opinions from neutral respondents regarding their attitude towards flexible work hours indicates potential underuse or lack of awareness of such arrangements.

Anti-harassment Policies

As per the data, respondents showed a moderate level of satisfaction with the anti-harassment policies, with only 14.8% stating they were very satisfied and 27.8% stating they were satisfied. Meanwhile, 30.6% of respondents indicated no opinion or a neutral response. Additionally, 18.5% of respondents reported dissatisfaction, while only 8.3% reported strong dissatisfaction. The mean score of 2.75 for these policies indicates moderate levels of satisfaction, suggesting either the absence of anti-harassment policies or a lack of their implementation or effectiveness in the workplace. Furthermore, the lack of response or the neutral opinions of respondents showed uncertainty about the policy’s use or application, due to fear of retaliation or others.

Training for Personal Development

According to the analysis of the different policies, training opportunities had the lowest satisfaction rating: only 4.6% of respondents were very satisfied and 13.9% were satisfied. Conversely, 62.1% of the respondents indicated dissatisfaction with their training, with 27.8% indicating they were dissatisfied and 34.3% indicating they were very dissatisfied, and a small number expressed neutral responses to this policy. The mean score (3.73) suggests that the majority of respondents were dissatisfied and indicates the training provided for professional or personal development may not meet the standards and relevance of women conductors’ occupation. These data may also reflect a lack of gender equity regarding opportunities for advancement into areas of management where women are less likely to be provided with the same number of opportunities as men. Similarly, the glass ceiling theory (Cotter et al., 2001) reflects that these individuals could feel that their lack of training prevents them from advancing to higher levels in their careers. As such, this feeling of disappointment suggests that the organisations reinforce the patriarchal power structures by creating patriarchal and inequitable systems, denying women access to opportunities and resources to develop their careers.

Medical Facilities

The data indicate that a total of 51.9% of the respondents (20.4% very satisfied; 31.5% satisfied) were considered to be satisfied with the medical facilities that they were receiving. However, 35.2% of the respondents remained neutral, and 12.9% stated that they were dissatisfied. The mean score of 2.45 demonstrated a trend towards being satisfied. Thus, it has been examined that the healthcare-related services are mostly sufficient and wide-reaching, and even though the high level of satisfaction indicates that basic needs are being met, the number of neutral statements indicates that improvement is still required.

Leave Provisions

The highest level of satisfaction was found in leave provisions: 30.6% of respondents said they were very satisfied, while 29.6% said they were satisfied. On the other hand, 12.9% were dissatisfied and 26.9% were neutral. With a mean score of 2.26, the level of satisfaction is moderate to high. Thus, having leave is essential for maintaining a work-life balance. The usefulness of leave policies in lowering burnout is demonstrated by the comparatively high satisfaction ratings. However, a portion of the respondents’ dissatisfaction suggests that company culture or regulatory limitations make it difficult to take or use leave, as the majority of outsourced employees were unable to receive various types of leave facilities, such as maternity leave, casual leave and medical leave.

Overall, the findings indicate that various organisational supportive mechanisms were perceived to be working well, especially related to employee welfare, but there were still identifiable gaps in the other areas of professional growth and workplace flexibility. Additionally, the respondents’ dissatisfaction with training opportunities suggests an increased need for a number of skill development and career advancement.